biodegradation – Journal of Oil Palm Research

EMERGING POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE TREATMENT OF PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT (POME) THROUGH MICROBIAL BIODEGRADATION USING FUNGI: CHALLENGES AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

mpob_admin — Thu, 09 Apr 2026 07:57:09 +0000

Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is a high-strength wastewater which is rich in nutrients, organic matter and suspended solids. Discharging POME without adequate treatment into the environment can cause undesirable hazards to both humans and the environment. Conventional treatment methods, such as ponding systems and anaerobic digestion, are widely applied but face several limitations in managing POME, including inconsistent removal efficiency, extended treatment duration, extensive land use and unfavourable weather conditions. In contrast, fungal-based treatment systems are gaining interest due to the ability of the fungi to produce a wide range of extracellular enzymes, degrade complex organic or recalcitrant pollutants and possess remarkable adaptability to harsh environmental conditions. This review highlights the advantages of the fungal-based treatment systems over conventional treatment methods. It also focuses on the potential of diverse fungal strains as emerging pollution control for POME treatment, as well as in understanding fungal pollutant removal mechanisms and operational factors that influence fungal-based treatment performance. Finally, the review identifies the implementation challenges and future research directions, providing a comprehensive perspective on fungal-based POME treatment as a sustainable and scalable technology for pollution control.

BIODEGRADATION OF SURFACTANT IN THE ENVIRONMENT : A REVIEW

mpob_admin — Sat, 13 Nov 2021 16:14:48 +0000

Development of branched alkylbenzene sulfonate (BAS) The replacement of soap with surfactants achieved importance during World War II when oils and fats were in short supply and their replacement became technically and economically feasible (Swisher, 1987). BAS, a synthetic surfactant derived from petrochemical, was the most widely used surfactant during 1950s and early 1960s because of its excellent detergent properties, its low cost and attractive physical properties of its formulation (Hashim et al., 1989). BAS manifests several advantageous characteristics such as good cleaning ability, good solubility and good foaming power. After a few years, the changeover was complete and BAS became the major surfactant used, first in the U.S. and later around the world.

BAS contains a highly branched carbon backbone linked to a sulfonated benzene ring.

Alkylbenzene sulfonate is attacked by microorganisms through the alkyl chain, not through the sulfonate group or the benzene ring (Nielsen et al., 1985). In the case of BAS, the alkyl chain is resistant to microbial attack due to the highiy branch hydrocarbon chains. Microorganisms are deficient of enzyme systems that can attack and biodegrade such highly branched alkyl chains when they are attached to a benzene ring, thus posing problems in the biodegradation of BAS. BAS began to be noticeable in waste waters, treated sewage and receiving waters because they retained their foaming properties in natural waters at concentrations around 1 ppm (Swisher, 1987). However, certain bacteria are able to degrade BAS up to 60% during the primary and secondary treatment processes. However this degradation is slow and consequently, measureable amounts (ppm) are present in treatment plant effluents and these normally enter water systems. In other words, BAS does not undergo complete biodegradation and persists in the environment.

ECOTOXICOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF POORLY WATER SOLUBLE FATTY ALCOHOL ETHOXYLATES IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT

mpob_admin — Wed, 10 Mar 2021 04:01:10 +0000

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates (FAEO) are widely used for a wide range of applications. Due to their excessive and widespread use, the ecotoxicological behaviour of FAEO in aquatic environment is crucial in managing the environmental sustainability. The objective of this study is to determine the ecotoxicology behaviour, i.e. biodegradation and ecotoxicity, of poorly water soluble lauryl alcohol ethoxylates (C12) with different ethoxylate numbers, i.e. EO3, EO5, EO6, EO7 and EO10. For ecotoxicity test, OECD 209, activated sludge, respiration inhibition test method was used. This method was selected as a rapid screening test to identify substances that have unfavourable influence on microorganisms in sewage treatment plant and also to identify non-inhibitory concentration of test substances applicable for biodegradation test. Meanwhile, the biodegradation test was performed using OECD 301C, MITI (I) (Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Japan) test method. The biodegradability of this surfactant was monitored for 28 days. The results of OECD 209 showed only FAEO (EO3) with a maximum concentration of 1000 mg litre–1 inhibited more than 50% respiration of activated sludge, while other FAEO samples inhibited less than 50% after 3 hr of exposure. The 3 hr of half maximal effective concentration (EC50) for FAEO (EO3) for activated sludge was 423 mg litre–1 while, for other FAEO samples was > 1000 mg litre–1. The toxicity effect decreased with increasing EO number. For biodegradation test, the results indicated that FAEO were readily biodegraded in OECD 301C where their biodegradability surpassed the 60% pass level as stated in the standard method and can be considered as readily biodegradable in the environment. As the EO chain length increased, the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of FAEO tended to increase while the hydrophobicity tended to decrease. The reduction in hydrophobicity level increases its solubility in water, thus promotes rapid biodegradation in aquatic environment.